AQA Psychology A-Level Predictions 2026: The Ultimate Paper 3 Mega-Guide
- Georgie M
- May 23
- 18 min read
You’ve made it. Paper 1 and Paper 2 are officially behind you! Take a massive breath and give yourself some serious credit. I know from talking to so many of you this week that those first two papers threw some incredibly specific, tricky curveballs your way. But you survived them, and now we are on the final stretch.
Paper 3 is the big one. It’s where psychology gets messy, fascinating, and highly synoptic. It is also the paper that heavily rewards students who know how to structure an essay under pressure.
Because Paper 3 is notoriously essay-heavy, you are highly likely to face two full 16-mark essays alongside a handful of hefty 8-markers. To make your life easier, I’ve put together a completely free download of my exact Exam Essay Planning Grids to help you map your AO1 and AO3 boundaries cleanly before you start writing.
A Quick, Honest Disclaimer: Before we look at the data, let’s do a quick statistical reality check. These predictions are an educated guess based on a rigorous probability analysis of previous AQA exam cycles—I do not have any insider knowledge from the exam board. In the world of statistics, we work with a 95% confidence level (p≤0.05), meaning there is always a 5% chance the paper will surprise us. AQA specification content is all fair game. Use this guide to prioritise your high-level evaluation, not as an excuse to skip topics!
Section A: Issues & Debates Hot Topics
Issues and Debates is all about the "Big Picture". The examiners want to see if you can take an abstract concept and ground it using concrete examples from the core approaches.
1. Gender Bias
Alpha Bias: This occurs when psychological theories exaggerate or overestimate the differences between men and women. The consequence is that one gender (almost always female) is devalued.
Exam Focus: Freud’s psychodynamic approach is a textbook example. He viewed femininity as failed masculinity (arguing young girls suffer from "penis envy"), which treated the male developmental trajectory as the human norm and pathologised women.
Beta Bias: This happens when theories minimise or completely ignore differences between men and women. Researchers test an exclusively male sample and assume the findings apply identically to females.
Exam Focus: Early research into the fight-or-flight stress response was conducted almost entirely on male animals because female hormone cycles fluctuate and complicate data. This led to a beta-biased assumption that fight-or-flight was universal, completely missing the female "tend-and-befriend" response (mediated by oxytocin).
Androcentrism: The direct result of beta bias. If the baseline for "normal" human behaviour is drawn entirely from male research, any female behaviour that deviates from this standard is viewed as abnormal, deficient, or unstable.
2. Cultural Bias
Ethnocentrism: This is the belief in the superiority of one's own cultural group. Researchers use their own cultural norms as an unspoken baseline to judge and evaluate other cultures.
Exam Focus: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Rooted entirely in an American, individualist ideal of secure attachment (characterised by moderate separation anxiety). When applied to German infants, their natural independence was incorrectly categorised as "insecure-avoidant", rather than being recognised as a cultural shift towards early self-reliance.
Cultural Relativism: The vital counter-approach. It argues that a behaviour cannot be properly understood or judged unless it is viewed within the specific context of the culture where it originated.
Imposed Etic: Taking a tool, technique, or theory rooted within one culture (an emic perspective) and forcing it onto another culture while assuming it behaves as a universal law (an etic perspective).
3. Nature vs. Nurture
The Paradigm Shift: AQA has moved away from asking you to defend one side or the other. The money is now in Interactionism—exploring how our nature and nurture intertwine.
Diathesis-Stress Model: Suggests an individual inherits a biological genetic vulnerability (diathesis), but this gene will only express itself if it is triggered by an environmental stressor (nurture).
Epigenetics: This refers to material changes in genetic activity without altering the genetic code itself. Environmental factors such as chronic stress, trauma, or diet leave chemical "tags" on our DNA. These tags act like light switches, turning specific genes on or off, and these modifications can actually be passed down to future generations.
4. The Scientific Emphasis on Causal Explanations
The Core Concept: Science operates on the absolute assumption that every event has a definitive cause that can be uncovered through empirical research. By strictly controlling independent variables (IV) to measure their direct effect on dependent variables (DV), psychology strives for hard determinism to construct universal laws of human behaviour.
The Pitfall: Human behaviour is highly complex and rarely dictated by a single, isolated variable. By forcing human nature into strict, causal, deterministic models, psychology risks being fundamentally reductionist—ignoring cognitive mediation, personal choice, and subjective conscious experience.
5. Ethical Implications of Research & Theories
Socially Sensitive Research (SSR): Formally defined by Sieber and Stanley as studies or theories where there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants involved or for the wider group of individuals represented by the research.
The Evaluation Pillars: You must be prepared to evaluate SSR across two key phases:
The Research Question: Merely asking a question (e.g., "Are there genetic links to violent crime?") can inadvertently lend scientific credibility to deeply ingrained social prejudices.
Institutional Use: Look at how data is weaponised by governments or the media to shape public policy. For example, Cyril Burt’s fabricated twin research on IQ was used to justify the creation of the 11+ entry exam, structurally altering millions of children's academic futures based on a flawed view of unchangeable intelligence.
Option B Deep Dive
(Note: You will only answer questions on one of the following three topics in your exam!)
Relationships
Social Exchange Theory (Thibaut and Kelley)
An economic model of relationships asserting that human interactions are guided by a basic minimax strategy: we aim to maximise our rewards (companionship, validation, sex) and minimise our costs (time, financial output, emotional compromise).
Comparison Level (CL): The baseline standard we expect from a relationship, constructed entirely from our past romantic experiences and cultural representations (like movies or social media). If your current relationship surpasses your CL, you will feel satisfied.
Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt): We continuously assess whether the potential rewards of a different partner—or being single—outweigh the rewards of our current setup. If the alternative looks brighter, commitment drops.
Equity Theory (Walster et al.)
An essential development of Social Exchange Theory. Walster argued that relationships are not just about hoarding rewards; they are built on a fundamental desire for fairness. Equity does not mean an exact 50/50 split of tasks, but rather that a partner's profit ratio is proportional:
Partner A's Benefits - Costs = Partner B's Benefits - Costs
If there is a severe imbalance, inequity breeds distress:
The under-benefitted partner experiences intense feelings of resentment, anger, and exploitation.
The over-benefited partner often experiences underlying feelings of guilt, shame, and discomfort.
Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown
Duck argued that relationship dissolution is not a sudden, clean break, but a progressive journey across four distinct, identifiable phases.
Phase | Core Cognitive & Behavioural Focus | The Internal Catchphrase |
1. Intrapersonal | Internal brooding. An individual privately focuses on their partner's flaws and relationship shortfalls without airing them. | "I can't stand this anymore." |
2. Dyadic | The issues are brought to light. Confrontations, lengthy discussions, and arguments occur regarding equity, commitment, and grievances. | "I would be justified in withdrawing." |
3. Social | The breakup goes public. The issues are shared with friends and wider family networks. Factions form, and reconciliation becomes much harder. | "It is now inevitable." |
4. Grave-Dressing | Retrospective narrative spinning. The relationship is buried, and both parties curate a personalised history of the breakdown designed to protect their own social credit for future dating pools. | "Time to get a new life." |
Parasocial Relationships
These are one-sided, entirely unreciprocated relationships where an individual invests immense emotional energy, time, and devotion into a celebrity, creator, or fictional character who is completely unaware of their existence.
The Absorption-Addiction Model (McCutcheon)
Absorption: Individuals who suffer from deficits in their own personal lives (e.g., identity crises, profound loneliness, or low self-esteem) look to escape reality. They become deeply absorbed in the daily life of a celebrity to find meaning.
Addiction: Much like a chemical dependency, the individual eventually develops a tolerance. They require an increasingly intense "dose" of involvement to sustain the psychological high, leading to obsessive rituals and, in severe cases, delusional thinking.
The Three Levels of Parasocial Relationships
Entertainment-Social: The baseline level. The celebrity is viewed simply as a source of fun, entertainment, and a point of casual gossip with peers.
Intense-Personal: The intermediate level. This features deep, obsessive internal thoughts and feelings (e.g., genuinely believing the celebrity is your spiritual soulmate).
Borderline-Pathological: The most extreme manifestation. This involves uncontrollable fantasies, severe behavioural patterns, and a willingness to spend vast sums of money or engage in illegal acts (like stalking) to contact them.
Gender
Chromosomes and Hormones
Our biological sex is determined by our chromosomes (XX for females, XY for males). These chromosomes direct the development of gonads, which release hormones that shape both physical and psychological gender.
Testosterone: An androgen responsible for male sexual characteristics and linked behaviourally to dominance and spatial ability.
Estrogen: Governs female menstruation and physical development, behaviourally associated with emotional reactivity and nurturing.
Oxytocin: Often called the "bonding hormone", it promotes nesting, reduces stress, and is highly elevated during childbirth and breastfeeding.
Atypical Sex Chromosomes
Evaluating the biological argument is incredibly easy if you focus on individuals who possess an atypical chromosomal pattern. These are natural experiments that show how biology influences physical and psychological traits.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY): Affects biological males who have an extra X chromosome.
Physical traits: Reduced body hair, some breast development (gynecomastia), long limbs.
Psychological/Cognitive traits: Poorly developed language skills, shyness, passive temperament, and difficulty handling stress.
Turner’s Syndrome (XO): Affects biological females who are missing one of their X chromosomes.
Physical traits: Webbed neck, short stature, undeveloped ovaries (infertile).
Psychological/Cognitive traits: High verbal ability, but lower-than-average spatial and mathematical skills, and difficulty fitting in socially with peers.
AO3 Nature/Nurture Connection: Comparing individuals with these syndromes to typical chromosome groups allows us to infer that different physical and behavioural traits have a direct genetic base (nature). However, we must not overlook nurture: individuals who look physically different may be treated differently by parents and peers, meaning environmental factors could still drive some of their psychological traits.
Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender
Kohlberg argued that a child’s understanding of gender actively develops in parallel with their general cognitive maturation (linking directly to Piaget's ideas of development). Children progress through three rigid stages:
Gender Identity (Ages 2–3): The child can correctly label themselves and others as boy or girl, but this is based entirely on outward appearance. They believe a boy who puts on a dress physically becomes a girl.
Gender Stability (Ages 3–4): The child understands that their own gender will remain constant over time (a boy grows up to be a man). However, they are still easily confused by changes in outward appearance or activities (e.g., believing a man who plays with dolls has changed gender).
Gender Constancy (Ages 6–7): The child understands that gender is completely permanent across both time and situations, regardless of clothing or behaviour. It is only at this stage that children actively seek out same-sex role models to imitate.
The Influence of Culture on Gender Roles
If gender roles were entirely biological (nature), we would expect them to be universal across all human cultures. If they are learned (nurture), they should vary.
Margaret Mead’s Research: Studied different tribal societies in New Guinea:
Arapesh: Both males and females were gentle, cooperative, and nurturing (akin to Western feminine stereotypes).
Mundugumor: Both genders were aggressive, hostile, and competitive (akin to Western masculine stereotypes).
Tchambuli: Gender roles were completely reversed compared to Western norms. Women were dominant, practical, and managed the community, while men were emotionally dependent, artistic, and spent time grooming.
Evaluation: This strongly suggests that gender roles are socially constructed rather than biologically determined. However, Mead’s work has been heavily criticised for observer bias and over-interpreting her findings to match her own beliefs.
Cognition & Development
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget proposed that children do not simply know less than adults; they think in fundamentally different ways. Children are "little scientists" who actively construct an understanding of the world through mental frameworks called schemas.
As they encounter new information, they undergo assimilation (fitting new experiences into existing schemas) or accommodation (drastically altering existing schemas or creating new ones because of new information that causes cognitive disequilibrium).
Piaget's Stages of Intellectual Development
Piaget argued that all children progress through four distinct, invariant stages of cognitive development:
Stage | Approximate Age | Core Characteristics & Milestones |
1. Sensorimotor | 0–2 years | Learning through sensory experiences and motor movement. The key milestone is Object Permanence (understanding that an object still exists even when out of sight, which typically develops around 8 months). |
2. Pre-operational | 2–7 years | Dominated by visual appearance. Children are Egocentric (unable to see the world from another person's perspective, as shown in the Three Mountains Task) and lack the ability to conserve. |
3. Concrete Operational | 7–11 years | Children acquire logical reasoning. They can perform operations on physical objects, understand Conservation (quantity remains the same despite changes in shape/appearance), and grasp Class Inclusion (understanding sub-categories, e.g., that "poodles" are also part of the wider class "dogs"). |
4. Formal Operational | 11+ years | Children develop the capacity for abstract reasoning, systematic scientific testing, and hypothetical thinking. |
Challenging Piaget: McGarrigle and Donaldson’s "Naughty Teddy" Study
Piaget famously claimed that children in the pre-operational stage (under 7) could not conserve volume or number because their thinking was too rigid.
Piaget's Method: He showed children two identical rows of counters, spaced them out in one row, and asked if there were still the same number. Children under 7 typically failed, claiming the longer row had more.
The Challenge (McGarrigle & Donaldson): They argued that the adult deliberately changing the counters made the child think a change must have occurred (demand characteristics).
The Study: They introduced a "Naughty Teddy" who swept over the counters and accidentally disarranged one of the rows.
The Findings: When the change was "accidental," 62% of children aged 4 to 6 successfully conserved and knew the number of counters remained the same. This directly challenged Piaget’s findings, proving that young children are far more cognitively capable than he assumed; his traditional testing methods simply lacked task copelessness and confused the children.
Option C Deep Dive
(Note: You will only answer questions on one of the following three topics in your exam!)
Schizophrenia
Reliability and Validity in Diagnosis
The diagnostic process for Schizophrenia (using DSM-5 or ICD-11) faces substantial criticism. You must understand how diagnostic boundaries can break down due to two key concepts:
Comorbidity: This is the phenomenon where two or more distinct medical or psychological conditions occur simultaneously in the same patient. If Schizophrenia is regularly diagnosed alongside other severe mental health conditions, it becomes incredibly difficult for clinicians to tell which symptoms belong to which disorder.
Exam Focus: Buckley et al. (2009) investigated co-morbidity and found that $50\%$ of schizophrenia patients also had a diagnosis of depression, $47\%$ had a substance abuse diagnosis, and $29\%$ suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This severely compromises the validity of the diagnosis—are we looking at one distinct, separate mental disorder, or are we pathologising complex, overlapping trauma states?
Symptom Overlap: This occurs when different disorders share the exact same symptoms.
Exam Focus: Both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder share the symptom of delusions (e.g., grandiose delusions) and severe mood fluctuations. Under ICD rules, a patient might be diagnosed with schizophrenia, while under DSM rules, they are diagnosed with bipolar disorder. This discrepancy damages the inter-rater reliability of psychiatric classification systems.
Biological Explanations: Genetics & Neural Correlates
The Dopamine Hypothesis: The original hypothesis (hyperdopaminergia) asserted that high activity/high levels of dopamine in the subcortex (specifically the mesolimbic pathway) was the core driver of positive symptoms like hallucinations. The updated version (hypodopaminergia) notes that abnormally low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical pathway) drive negative symptoms such as avolition and speech poverty.
Neural Correlates: These are measurements of structural or functional brain activity that correlate with specific schizophrenic experiences. For example, lower levels of activity in the ventral striatum have been strongly correlated with severe avolition (loss of motivation), as this area is the brain’s primary reward processing center.
Biological Treatments: Drug Therapies
Typical Antipsychotics (e.g., Chlorpromazine): First developed in the 1950s. They act as dopamine antagonists, physically blocking dopamine receptors (D2 receptors) in the synapses of the brain to reduce transmission. They are highly effective at dampening positive symptoms but carry severe side effects (e.g., motor tremors resembling Parkinson's, and tardive dyskinesia).
Atypical Antipsychotics (e.g., Clozapine, Risperidone): Developed in the 1970s. They also act as dopamine antagonists but additionally bind to serotonin and glutamate receptors. This dual-action improves mood, reduces anxiety, and is far more effective at treating negative symptoms while carrying a lower risk of motor side effects.
Psychological Treatments: Token Economies
The Mechanics (Operant Conditioning): Used predominantly in psychiatric wards to manage maladaptive behaviours (such as poor hygiene or social withdrawal).
Patients are awarded immediate tokens (secondary reinforcers) when they perform targeted, positive behaviours (like making their bed).
These tokens are later exchanged for primary reinforcers (meaningful rewards like TV time, snacks, or outside privileges).
The Behavioural Catch: To prevent delay discounting, tokens must be awarded immediately after the behaviour occurs. If too much time passes, the connection between behaviour and reward is lost.
AO3 Ethical Critiques: Token economies do not cure Schizophrenia; they merely manage outward behaviour. Critics argue they are paternalistic and strip patients of basic human rights, as staff can control access to basic pleasures (like food or fresh air) based on compliance.
Eating Behaviour
The Success and Failure of Dieting
The Boundary Model (Herman and Polivy)
AO1 Core: Biologically, our eating is governed by a physiological continuum. At one end is the hunger boundary (tells us when to start eating) and at the other is the satiety boundary (tells us when we are full and must stop).
The Restrained Eater: Dieters intentionally place a psychological constraint on themselves—a cognitive diet boundary. This boundary is set well before the biological satiety boundary is reached.
The "What the Hell" Effect (Counter-Regulation)
If a restrained eater crosses their self-imposed cognitive boundary by eating a forbidden food (even by a tiny fraction), they experience a cognitive collapse. They think, "What the hell, I’ve ruined my diet now anyway," and proceed to binge-eat up to the maximum biological satiety boundary (or past it, causing discomfort).
Biological Hunger Boundary ───► [ Cognitive Diet Boundary ] ───► Biological Satiety Boundary
│
If crossed: "What the Hell" effect
│
▼
Binging
AO3 Supporting Evidence (Wardle and Beales): Partitioned 27 obese women into a restrained diet group, an exercise group, and a non-treatment control group for 7 weeks. The restrained group consumed significantly more food during assessing sessions than the other groups, validating the idea that dietary restraint paradoxically encourages overeating.
Evolutionary Explanations for Food Preferences
The Ancestral Environment (EEA): Our ancestors faced constant starvation. Therefore, we evolved innate preferences for high-calorie, fatty, and sweet foods to maximise survival odds.
Neophobia: This is an innate reluctance or fear of consuming new, unfamiliar foods. This was highly adaptive for ancestors, protecting them from accidentally eating poisonous or toxic plant matter before they could identify it.
Taste Aversion: We possess an evolutionary predisposition to rapidly learn to avoid foods associated with sickness.
Exam Focus: Garcia et al. (1955) showed that rats given a single dose of radiation after tasting a novel sweet liquid developed an immediate, long-lasting aversion to that taste. This rapid, one-trial learning is a biological mechanism designed to prevent fatal poisoning in the wild.
Stress
The Physiology of Stress
1. The SAM Pathway (Acute/Short-Term Stress)
The Mechanism: The hypothalamus perceives a sudden stressor and activates the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS). The SNS signals the Adrenal Medulla, which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream. This primes the body for immediate fight-or-flight (increased heart rate, dilated pupils, suppressed digestion).
Once the threat passes, the Parasympathetic Nervous System takes over to return the body to homeostasis.
2. The HPA Pathway (Chronic/Long-Term Stress)
The Mechanism: If the stressor persists, the Hypothalamus releases Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH). This triggers the Pituitary Gland to secrete Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH). ACTH travels via the bloodstream to stimulate the Adrenal Cortex, which releases cortisol.
Cortisol provides sustained energy by bursting glucose into the bloodstream, but it suppresses the immune system over time, leaving the individual vulnerable to illness.
Sources of Stress: Life Changes vs. Daily Hassles
Life Changes: Major, infrequent events that require significant psychic realignment (e.g., divorce, bereavement). Measured by Holmes and Rahe’s SRRS scale using Life Change Units (LCUs).
Daily Hassles: Minor, frequent irritations encountered in everyday life (e.g., traffic, annoying colleagues, losing your phone keys).
The Comparison: Research consistently shows that Daily Hassles are a stronger predictor of psychological and physical illness than life changes. The continuous, unremitting nature of daily hassles keeps the HPA pathway chronically active, whereas life changes are rare and allow time for recovery.
Stress Treatment: Biofeedback
A behavioural therapy where patients learn to gain voluntary, conscious control over involuntary autonomic physiological processes (like heart rate or muscle tension).
Option D Deep Dive
(Note: You will only answer questions on one of the following three topics in your exam!)
Aggression
Neural and Hormonal Explanations
Limbic System (Amygdala): The amygdala acts as our emotional sentinel, evaluating sensory information to initiate an aggressive or defensive response. Hyperactivity in the amygdala is strongly linked to impulsive aggression.
Serotonin: An inhibitory neurotransmitter that normally exerts a calming effect on the brain. Abnormally low levels of serotonin in the prefrontal cortex reduce self-control, leading to unchecked emotional responses and increased aggression.
Testosterone: An androgenic hormone. High levels of testosterone are strongly correlated with competitive, dominant, and aggressive behaviours.
Ethological Explanations of Aggression
Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs): Ethologists argue that animal aggression is innate, universal, and ritualised. When a species encounters a specific environmental trigger, it initiates a Fixed Action Pattern. Lorenz argued FAPs are:
Stereotyped: Constant in form.
Universal: Occur in every member of that species.
Ballistic: Once triggered, they must run to completion.
Innate Releasing Mechanisms (IRMs): The physiological "hard drive" in the brain that detects a specific stimulus (like a rival's coloration) and automatically triggers the corresponding FAP.
Key Study (Tinbergen, 1952): Male sticklebacks will aggressively attack any wooden model introduced into their tank, regardless of its shape, as long as it has a red underside. The red underbelly acts as the sign stimulus that activates the IRM, launching the ballistic FAP.
Media Influences: Desensitisation, Disinhibition, and Priming
If you face an essay on media violence, you must be able to break down these three cognitive-behavioural mechanisms:
Desensitisation: Normally, witnessing violence triggers physiological arousal (SNS activation: rapid heart rate, sweat). However, repeated exposure to violent media desensitises us, dampening this physiological response. We become emotionally numb to aggression, making it easier to commit violent acts without experiencing guilt or distress.
Disinhibition: Most people hold strong, learned social norms against using violence. Disinhibition occurs when media portrays violence as justified, heroic, or unpunished. This undermines our internal psychological barriers, making aggression seem like an acceptable, socially viable solution.
Cognitive Priming: Violent media provides a mental storehouse of "cognitive scripts"—pre-programmed schemas on how to react in conflict situations. When we encounter a real-life trigger, these scripts are primed (activated), leading us to interpret ambiguous cues as hostile and react with automatic physical aggression.
Forensic Psychology
Offender Profiling: Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up
Top-Down (FBI Approach): Rooted in qualitative, intuitive analysis. Originating from interviews with 36 serial killers in the 1970s, it forces crime scene data into pre-existing typologies:
Organised: Planned crimes, target selected, high control, intelligent, socially competent.
Disorganised: Unplanned, chaotic crime scenes, random target, low control, low IQ, socially awkward.
Bottom-Up (British Statistical Approach): Built on quantitative, empirical data-mining. Developed by David Canter, it rejects pre-existing typologies and builds a profile upward using:
Investigative Psychology: Analysing behavioural patterns across multiple crime scenes to establish consistency.
Geographical Profiling (Circle Theory): Using spatial tracking to identify the offender's "center of gravity" (where they live or work). Predicts whether they are a Marauder (operates close to home) or a Commuter (travels to commit crimes).
Biological Explanations: Genetic & Neural
Genetic Explanations:
The MAOA Gene: Controls dopamine and serotonin levels; low-activity variants (MAOA-L) are linked to violent behaviour.
CDH13: Strongly linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder.
Key Study (Brunner et al., 1993): Investigated a large Dutch family with a history of severe violence. Genetic mapping revealed they all possessed a mutated, low-functioning MAOA gene, establishing a direct biological pathway to criminality.
Neural Explanations: Neuroimaging shows that individuals with antisocial personality disorder (APD) exhibit significantly reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex (which governs impulse control and moral reasoning).
Eysenck’s Theory of the Criminal Personality
Eysenck argued that personality is biologically determined, and that specific nervous system types predispose individuals to criminal acts. He measured these across three primary dimensions:
Extraversion (E): Driven by an under-active nervous system. Extraverts constantly seek environmental stimulation (leading to risk-taking and law-breaking) to raise their arousal levels to comfortable baselines.
Neuroticism (N): Determined by a highly reactive autonomic nervous system. Neurotics react with severe, unpredictable emotions, making them unstable and highly prone to impulsive criminality.
Psychoticism (P): Linked to high testosterone levels. Psychotics are characterised by low empathy, cruelty, aggression, and cold, antisocial tendencies.
Differential Association Theory (Sutherland)
An essential social learning explanation. Sutherland completely rejected biological criminality, arguing that criminal behaviour is learned entirely through interaction with others.
The Mathematical Ratio: If an individual is exposed to more pro-criminal attitudes than anti-criminal attitudes, they will inevitably learn to view criminal acts as favourable and acceptable.
Sutherland argued that if we know the frequency, intensity, and duration of an individual's exposure to criminal behaviours, we can mathematically predict their likelihood of offending. They also learn specific physical techniques (how to pick a lock, how to hotwire a car) from their peer groups.
Addiction
Models of Behaviour Change
If you are asked about the models of change, remember that these are heavily structured, sequential models where precise terminology and ordering are key to unlocking top marks.
1. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen)
This cognitive model states that our ability to change an addictive habit is mediated by our conscious intentions, which are shaped by three core variables
Personal Attitude: The individual's evaluation of their addiction. Do they view the pros of quitting (better health) as outweighing the cons (withdrawal)?
Subjective Norms: The individual’s perception of how their immediate social circle (family/friends) views their addictive behaviour. Do peers encourage or condemn it?
Perceived Behavioural Control: The extent to which the individual genuinely believes they possess the skills, willpower, and resources to successfully stop. This directly influences intention and can act as a direct shortcut to behaviour change.
2. Prochaska’s Six-Stage Model of Behaviour Change
Prochaska recognised that overcoming an addiction is a slow, cyclical process rather than a single decision. He mapped out six distinct stages of recovery:
Stage | Core Psychological Mindset | Action Plan |
1. Pre-contemplation | Total denial. The individual has no intention of changing their behaviour within the next 6 months. | Education, highlighting the negative consequences of the addiction. |
2. Contemplation | Ambivalence. The individual recognises they have a problem and begins weighing the costs vs. benefits of quitting. | Resolving the cognitive conflict; focusing on the benefits of change. |
3. Preparation | Intention to act. The individual decides to change and begins planning how to quit (e.g., buying nicotine patches, booking an appointment). | Setting a firm start date; removing triggers from their environment. |
4. Action | The behaviour change begins. The individual actively stops engaging in the addiction (e.g., stops smoking entirely). This stage typically lasts 1 to 6 months. | Developing cognitive-behavioural coping strategies to manage cravings. |
5. Maintenance | Sustaining the change. The focus shifts to preventing relapse and maintaining abstinence over a long period (usually 6+ months). | Relapse prevention planning; building long-term support systems. |
6. Termination | Absolute freedom. The addictive behaviour no longer holds any cognitive trigger or temptation. Relapse risk is virtually zero. | Celebrating lifetime abstinence (this stage is often seen as unrealistic for many). |
What Should You Do Now?
Download the Grids: Grab the free Exam Essay Planning Grids below. Use them to map out your 16-mark essays for these specific topics.
Focus on the AO3 Transitions: For Paper 3, top marks are awarded when you can seamlessly link your AO3 points back to the issues and debates in Part 1. If you are discussing atypical sex chromosomes, pull in your points on the nature vs. nurture debate. If you are writing about relationships under equity theory, link it directly to cultural relativism (does equity matter in collectivist cultures?).
Practice on the "Stems": Don't just memorise definitions. Look at past papers and find the application questions (the short paragraphs about fictional characters). Practice identifying the concept within the text so you can apply your knowledge quickly under exam conditions.
Good luck with your final preparations! Keep your heads down, trust your revision, and remember: you are down to the final stretch.
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